Structural Realism Theory and the Developing world

Outline Structure The previous decade has witnessed some investigations assessing the applicability of available International Relations (IR) models to, and complaining about the abandonment of the rising economies, and especially of third world (Africa) in particular, in International Relations theory.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Structural Realism Theory and the Developing world specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This essay tries to go past this well-substantiated disapproval, and in its place questions what International Relations theory is supposed to undertake to tackle the problems in the developing world, inquire how academic contributions from Africa may perhaps supplement our perception of International Relations. Conversely, it attempts to understand how the occurrences in Africa and the research produced by Africans can add up to a superior indulgence to International Relations.  The focal point is to employ the works of Arlene Tickner (2003a, p. 300), on the emerging economies as instruments of International Relations facts as opposed to objects of International Relations inquiries. And on surveying MacLean’s assertion that ‘‘Africa’s practices†¦ provide insights for the development of IR theory and policy far beyond the continent’’ (MacLean , 2001, p. 150). The insinuation is thus not that the total field of International Relations that has been naive to Africa and the confrontations that it facades (Brown, 2006), but relatively subsists to the periphery of the discipline. Wherever there have been efforts aimed at taking Africa into the crinkle, it has been performed from the viewpoint of ‘what capability should the Western International Relations do to slot in Africa’ instead of ‘what can scholars discover from the African experience’.  When someone reflects on the wish in native acquaintance from Afr ica and all of the rising economies relative to sections such as normal medicine or eastern creed and sculpture, it turns out to be clear that it is not a narrative suggestion that comprehend from the non- Western humanity can manipulate the west. Unfortunately this curiosity on how available (Western) information might be developed by aboriginal facts and performances has not unmitigated to the inquiry of IR. Majority of researchers meticulously observe modest worth in developing an endeavor to learn from teachings from the outside edge. The suggestion that academicians in the hub of the field, principally in the US and UK, are the inventors of premise, while scholars in the far away countries, Africa and most of the developing world, are simply clients of the hypothesis; has been prevalent in the field. Regrettably, as Mallavarapu (2005) argues that this outlook is not merely apprehended in the nucleus. Academicians from the emerging economies ‘‘have been complicit in viewing themselves as mere recipients of a discourse shaped elsewhere’’ (Mallavarapu, 2005, p. 1).  This implies one impediment in the examination of feasible African contributions to International Relations theory.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Evidently, there are many additional limitations, equally in external, such as the entrance observance rules so rampant in the field, and internal (constituting deficiency of assets and the outlook that theorizing is too expensive in the milieu of Africa, where pressing tribulations have need of critical strategy answers). Bilgin (2008) questions the ubiquitous postulations of divergence linking Western and non Western studies to global politics on the basis that Western and non- Western practices and their elucidations have turned out to be so intertwined that non- Western traditions of philosophy regarding to respo nsibility towards global politics are â€Å"not forever free from Western models and theories’’ (p. 6). Neo-realism Realism is one of the international relations theories, apart from idealism and Marxism, emerging towards the beginning of the beginning of the Second World War and maturing during and after the World War 2. The theory emerged after the idealists failed to explain why the Second World War occurred and yet there was a league of nations based on collective security and international law. The founders of the theory started by criticizing the conceptualization of man by idealists, idealists were based on utopia. Intrinsically, man is unscathed, selfish, enjoys when others suffer and is motivated by personal interests. The realists assume that man uses another man to fulfill his interests since man is self-centered. Whenever people cooperate, they aim at achieving something at the end implying that cooperation is aimed at acquiring self-goals. States are also guided by the principle of using other states to obtain selfish interests. States focus more on achieving national interests rather than fulfilling collective international objectives. The international system is perceived as a jungle whereby each state is hostile to each other and always dodging each other. The international system is anarchical in nature where power holding is determined by prevailing economic and political influence. The most powerful states dictate whatever they feel is suitable to other powerless states. The international system is likened to Hobbestian state of nature where life was short lived and states are always in conflicts. There is no a leviathan, which is in charge of arbitration and setting standards to be followed by other parties. Absence of a leviathan creates a vacuum that is filled by the mighty ones hence dominating global opinions and decision-making mechanisms. There is no common power in the international system instead some states force the ir way into leadership positions. The members of the international system, just like the members of the state of nature are driven by instincts. Life in the anarchical international system is brutish, short lived and solitary because there is no common power. At the national level, realists believe that states enter into contracts to form a leviathan unlike in the international system.  Kenneth Waltz in his book published in 1979 adjusted realism, which was mainly structural. This means that he reduced everything to the structure.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Structural Realism Theory and the Developing world specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Choices made by states in the international system are influenced by international system. The theorist focused on the status of the international system by claiming that only polarity influences the behavior of states in the international system. Change in a states lea dership does not affect its foreign policies. The issue of superpower affected the behavior of many states during the cold war. States were aligning with either the capitalist West or the communist east. The two super powers struggled to consolidate support from other states mainly to achieve their interests. States on the other hand calculated the benefits they could get from either side before associating with the super powers. The two super powers at the time asserted themselves in terms of ideologies where the United States wanted to construct an Americana world while the Soviet Union was proposing for collectivization of resources. Neo-realism and Developing Countries It is undisputable that Western International Relations was original in the discipline as an insecure intellectual subject trying to comprehend and hypothesize as regards to the vibrant global politics. There is no great suspicion that the major thoughts in the subject are intensely ingrained in the particularitie s and peculiarities of western olden times, the augment of the West to global power and the erection of its own opinionated system onto the whole earth. Put jointly, these two specifics denote that non-Western efforts to build up philosophy about International Relations, just like current capitalists, automatically have to create their ways in setting previously deeply habituated by past expansion. This fact is not disputed by any one, even though intellectual International Relations is now an international affair though incredibly unequally disseminated, still in the West, it remains extraordinarily subjugated to Western philosophy. At the same time as this state of affairs is not inherently bewildering, it is obliging to examine carefully the motives behind this. A few clarifications give little or no scope or basis for curative intervention. Others recommend that the issue of Western supremacy be expected to be transitory (Amitav and Barry, 2005, p. 293) This elucidation is not o n the subject of whether Western International Relations Theory has set up the entire accurate courses to reality. Since Western International Relations Theory has been approved by the authority of Western rule in the previous few centuries, it has obtained an international dominion grade that functions mainly mechanically in the brains of others, and in spite of whether the hypothesis is accurate or not. At this point, an individual would want to be keen on describing the logical effects of Western imperialism and the achievement of the influential in impressing their own thoughts against the wits and performances of the non-Western humanity. As illustrated above, the method of decolonization left in its wake a world modified, at times poorly, according to the European condition and its disordered society structure of global affairs.Advertising Looking for essay on political sciences? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The cost of autonomy was that local leaders agree to this configuration and a first-class case can be made that they did not merely do so in force, but were captivated and made their own entire deposits of important Western thoughts regarding to the performance of political financial system. In addition, it includes autonomous, territoriality and patriotism (Amitav and Barry, 294). Additional Western thoughts such as egalitarianism, the economy and human rights have had an extra competition, hardly worldwide, response, but nevertheless, have befall prevalent and high-ranking outside the West. Third-World leaders have employed the important rudiments of Westphalia dominion and even lengthened its scale. For instance, the principle of non-involvement, an important auxiliary rule of Westphalia independence, is being dynamically challenged in the West. It has undergone some attrition except in the Third World, where it has stayed put strongly. In reality, the fall of laissez faire in th e West has facilitated its rise in the developing World (Tilly, 1990). The conceptualization of what makes the African state of affairs exclusive includes a number of ideas that the states attach to political and monetary structures causing resulting to immense dysfunction. Given that Africa and other developing countries are never the beneficiaries of lofty amounts of overseas straight savings relative to other rising regions, majority of links of states to the fiscal system scuttle through official worldwide monetary institutions and expansion-focused nongovernmental institutions (NGOs). Consequently, the malfunction comes from the organizational state of affairs in the course of which funds go into and go out of the continent (Lavelle, 2001).  The genesis of the institutional conditions can be established in postcolonial rules that, in the dearth of any actual option material support, utilized state influence as a reserve to consolidate their own power (Boone, 1992). Even Mossà ¢â‚¬â„¢s Adventure Capitalism, the most economic in orientation of the four books reviewed, views stock markets as a counteractive means to existing paths in the course of which overseas wealth enters African economies. For that reason, to start a more persistent investigation into the political principles of the developing countries, over and above personality countries, analysts must tackle extensive monetary conditions (Lavelle, 2005, p. 367). Analysis and Criticisms of Neo-Realism A good number of global relations assumptions are inductively consequential from the European familiarity of the ancient times of about four centuries, for the period of which Europe was the nexus and initiator of war, inventions and affluence. According to Waltz (1979), â€Å"The theory of international politics is written in terms of the great powers of an era. It would be†¦ ridiculous to construct a theory of international politics based on Malaysia and Costa Rica†¦. a general theory of i nternational politics is necessarily based on the great powers† (p. 73). When international relations scholars concentrated on other sections of the sphere, it was to examine themes assumed minor such as developing world safety or the actions of diminutive states. In view of that, worldwide relations research has paid attention to elucidating the European practice. For instance, the roots of World Wars l and ll, over and above the Cold War and U.S.-Soviet affairs. Even though this is tranquilly factual, other fractions of the globe have turned out to be more and more important. Therefore, awareness of European relationships is no longer enough for a dutiful international relations generalist (Kang, 2003, p. 57).  Besides, establishing hypothesis that comes out from variant of realist assumption is habitually the theme of intense contest. Scrupulously attempts to rule out guesses that relate to developing countries can be exceedingly exasperating. The main intense argument of the cynical forecast as regards to developing countries raises the concern of a revisionist third world. Subsequent to two decades of speedy trade and industry growth, developing countries seems perched to turning to great supremacy over again. As a result, for Richard Betts, the problem happens to â€Å"†¦ get rich or not?† In favor of realists, the reaction ought to be no, because a rich third world would topple any balance of power (Betts, 1997, p. 55).  Anxiety over a revisionist and threatened third world has simply enlarged in the last decade, as its financial structure keeps on growing and its forces and scientific potentialities additionally growing. Questions are being posed on whether developing countries such as the Asian tigers have territorial and imperialistic aggression (Dunn Shaw, 2001). The data so far postulates that even though developing countries have great defensive quarrels with numerous countries, they have neither revisionist nor majestic int entions. In fact, most third world countries have expressed authentic interests to join the global society, possibly superlatively captured in their substantial attempts to be converted into members of the World Trade Organization (Friedrichs, 2004). The Neo-realists fail to open up a black box because they focus on international system while inclined to systemic variables. They largely ignore domestic variables such as the constitution and the nature of government. They fail to open up the state, which is detrimental to understanding the behavior of a state in the international system. The theory underestimates the role of morality and ethics in the interactions among states. For instance, humanitarian assistance is given to troubled countries even if they are enemies (Smith, 2009). The theorists hold that sovereign states are never interested with the interests of others. Conclusion To be stylish and inclusive, assumption strives to be prudent yet prudence enables disparity by pro viding the chances to the more dominant to prohibit and occlude the welfare and knowledge of those who have fewer voices. Admitting the intricacy in human interactions by having a smaller amount theory and more perspectives unlocks up opportunities for adjustment and edition that consent for the emerging countries to go into the world of thoughts, perceptions and lastly the theory that would help them solve the problems at hand (Ayoob, 2002, p. 48). For that reason, the integration of Africa into more commonly pertinent examinations of global political occurrence should do more than simply affix it to the environmental range of case studies existing. It should press on an ongoing search of the innumerable associations that gather around states and the organization of the world system (Lavelle, 2005, p. 376). References Amitav, A. Buzan, B. (2005) Why is there no non-Western international relations theory? Department of Politics, Bristol: University of Bristol. Ayoob, M (2002). Ineq uality and Theorizing in International Relations: The Case for Subaltern Realism, International Studies Association. Blackwell Publishing. Betts, R ,â€Å"Wealth, Power, and Instability: East Asia and the United States after the Cold War,† International Security, Vol. 18, No. 3 (Winter 1993/94), p. 60; Bilgin, P. (2008) Thinking past ‘Western’ IR?, Third World Quarterly, 29(1) 5–23. Brown, W. (2006) Africa in international relations: a comment on IR theory, anarchy and statehood, Review of International Studies, 32, 119–143. Dunn, K. Shaw, T. (2001) Africa’s Challenge to International Relations Theory, Basingstoke: Palgrave. Friedrichs, J. (2004) European Approaches to International Relations Theory. London: Routledge. Kang, D. Chan-oong, D. (2003) 1965-International Security, Getting Asia Wrong. The Need for New Analytical Frameworks, MIT Press. 27(4), 57-85. Lavelle, K. (2005) Moving in from the periphery: Africa and the study of internat ional political economy, Review of International Political Economy, 12(2), 364-379. MacLean, S.J. (2001) Challenging Westphalia: issues of sovereignty and identity in Southern Africa, in KC Dunn TM Shaw (ed), Africa’s challenge to international relations theory. New York, Palgrave Publishers Ltd. Mallavarapu, S. (2005) International Relations in India: Bringing Theory Back Home, Hyderabad, India: Orient Longman, pp. 17–38. Smith, K. (2009) Has Africa Got Anything to Say? African Contributions to the Theoretical Development of International Relations, The Round Table, 98(402), 269 — 284. Tickner, A. (2003a) Seeing IR differently: notes from the Third World, Millennium, 32(2), 295–324. Tilly, C. (1990) Coercion, Capital and European States AD 990–1990. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Waltz, K. (1979) Theory of International Politics. Reading Mass: Addison-Wesley, p. 73. This essay on Structural Realism Theory and the Developing world was written and submitted by user Brooke C. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

new england vs chesapeake essays

new england vs chesapeake essays On a warm early September night, all seventeen of us girls on the Eisenhower Dance Team sat anticipating our first football game of the 2003 season. Though so many emotions were felt that night, excitement would overcome us all. Since the Dance Team the year before had been known for their amazing talent, we knew there would be expectations to live up to. Everyone met in the cafeteria, like we usually did for practices. Dressed in out black and purple skirts and shell uniforms, makeup on, and hair tied back; everyone was ready to go. Since near half of the team was made of new members, this whole experience was a first for most of us. Soon enough we were getting our selves together and heading off to the field. After carrying the benchers to the track, we began to dance sidelines. While dancing, for a straight half-hour, the stands had become packed to the complete maximum. It was a full house that night. Ladies and gentlemen, welcome to the first Eisenhower home game of the 2003 season was heard over the speakers. It was time for the game to begin. Soon after the players lined up on the field the kickoff took place. Even though the game was slightly boring, the first half seemed to go by quicker than expected. No one on the dance team was much of a football wiz, but it was clear that this was going to be a sweet victory. Just as fast as the first quarter had past, the second quarter was passing too. With five minutes left before half time, we went on the track to stretch and for on e last quick marking of the dance. While stretching on the track that night, all I could do was worry. What if I messed up? What if I blanked and forgot the dance? What if I slipped and fell? Thoughts all alike flooded my head. With one last touchdo ...

Political structure of libya in the past and its current challenges Research Paper

Political structure of libya in the past and its current challenges including the national transition council - Research Paper Example Unlike the protests in Tunisia and Egypt, Libyans took a different approach torching and demolishing government buildings from the outset. Within a few days, the protests had found their way to the capital Tripoli and other major cities especially in the north-west. A look at other Arab countries such as Tunisia and Egypt revealed an active participation of organized social movements, opposition parties and trade unions (Inbar 110). However, this was not the case in Libya, the long serving Libyan leader, Muammar Gaddafi, had actively suppressed these organized bodies which informed their inexistence. Initially, the actors of the uprising were unorganized young men who acted spontaneously and lacked the social interactive forums as was the case in other Arab countries (Panara and Gary 10). Furthermore, these young men could not be identified as representatives of the Libyan middle class as the Libyan private sector was comparatively weak. There were two main reasons that led to the de velopment of the uprisings into a revolution. The first reason was the regime’s violent response to the protests. Initially, the uprisings were isolated and the regime was keen on suppressing them before they reached unprecedented levels as was the case with most of Libya’s neighbors (Panara and Gary 10). ... The second development was the institution of NTC (National Transition Committee) in Benghazi in early March. NTC was largely made up of elitists who had defected from the regime and assumed leadership of the unorganized uprising with a promise of bringing down the regime (Inbar 110). The background of the Libyan revolt against ruler Muammar Gaddafi had little to do with the overall performance of the economy. The high prices of oil in the international markets had helped the Libyan economy prosper. Following Gaddafi’s decision in 2003 to give up weapons of mass destruction programs, Libya returned to the forefront of international investor attention. From that point, overall growth increased, reaching 10 percent in 2010. Libya’s estimated 2010 GDP was $71.336 billion, of which oil accounts for 98 percent (Inbar 111). Nevertheless, there was vast corruption and nepotism, at least one third of residents lived in poverty, the unemployment rate was 30 percent, and substant ial income gaps existed between rich and poor; all of this helped fuel the resistance to the Gaddafi regime. Political developments From the beginning, both the political leadership and the forces that shaped the revolution were diverse and disjointed. The NTC was largely made up of longstanding members of the exiled opposition and had also created room for Gaddafi loyalists turned dissidents such as General Abdel Fatta Younis. The NTC also played host to influential and aristocratic families who had been isolated by the Gaddafi regime. This diversity created a clear split of ideas on the way forward, some of these individuals fought for reforms, while others only fought for inclusion (MacQueen 378). This

Chocolate Cake and Diet Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Chocolate Cake and Diet - Essay Example On the first half I gave up, I could not stop myself I just wanted more so I took a deep breath and the bitter and sweet smell filled my senses with happiness. The deep shades of brown covering the entire area around my mouth was quiet funny I could not believe myself that I could be that vulnerable regarding my obsession with chocolates and chocolate cakes. The most hateful aspect about being on a strict diet and one that was very painful was, not allowed to have chocolates. Especially on birthdays, over the years what made my birthdays so special were not the parties, balloons or the people but the dessert! On my every birthday I would have my favorite chocolate flourless, double layered with the thickest layer of chocolate fudge frosting. But all the wonderful sweet birthdays I had and despite all the fun I had in those birthdays, this day was simply the best. I took all my pent up frustration from having to eat veggies or organic foods over this luscious piece of cake. Although a slice of this cake meant hours and hours of workout and a day full of soups and only fruits but it was worth the sacrifice.It was the best slice of cake I had in my life, which changed the entire picture in my mind; I did not know that something could taste that heavenly. The ecstasy I felt when I took my first bite ended on remorse when I took the last so I finishes eating and dabbed my chocolate covered lips taking in the last remaining wisps and crumbs of the cake. It felt like one amazing experience.

Great Train Robbery Essay Example for Free

Great Train Robbery Essay Henry Hill, the character of Martin Scorsese’s film Goodfellas (1990), used to say: â€Å"As far back as I can remember, Ive always wanted to be a gangster† . The reason of the crime films and gagnster icons being of success with a public partly lies in this sublimated desire of an ordinary man to be as powerful, energetic, and famous as the criminals commemorated in mass-media. Rafter (2000, p. 3) explained the popularity of the genre by its fictional possibilities: [†¦] crime films offer us contradictory sorts of satisfaction: the reality of what we fear to be true and the fantasy of overcoming that reality; the pleasure of entering the realm of the forbidden and illicit and the security of rejecting or escaping that realm in the end. The crime film is traditionally associated with the American tradition of the early twentieth century, when romantic tales about heroes conquering promising spaces of the New World prairies were superseded by the not a less romantic sagas about daring individuals conquering updated urban localities. Shadoian (2003, p. 3) referred to the crime film as a prominent context for â€Å"both forming and reflecting the American imagination†. Audience has been enjoying crime movies since 1903, when Edwin S. Porter shot his Great Train Robbery. More than a hundred years of our experience with the crime film taught the public, critics, directors and producers many lessons. Shadoian (2003, p. 3) identified three reasons for the genre’s longevity: (1) â€Å"the issues it addresses have always been central to the American experience†; (2) â€Å"its formal properties have given them a clarity of outline and lucidity of exposition†; and (3) â€Å"it has been infinitely flexible in adapting itself to shifting social and cultural conditions†. But hardly is it absolutely right to emphasise the importance of the crime film for the American culture exclusively. The present dissertation analyses thirteen films made within the ‘crime movie’ context. Only six of them were produced by the USA-born directors: (1) William A. Wellman (1896 [Brookline, Massachusetts, USA] – 1975 [Los Angeles, California, USA]) – The Public Enemy (1931); (2) Raoul Walsh (1887 [New York, New York, USA] – 1980 [Simi Valley, California, USA]) – The Roaring Twenties (1939); White Heat (1949); (3) Martin Scorsese (b. 1942 [Queens, New York, USA]) – Goodfellas (1990); Gangs of New York (2002); (4) Quentin Tarantino (b. 1963 [Knoxville, Tennessee, USA]) – Pulp Fiction (1994). Though the film Brother (2000) is partially made in the United States settings, its creator is a famous Japanese director Takeshi Kitano (b. 1947 [Tokyo, Japan]). He is also responsible for another example of the crime movie, Hana-bi (aka Fireworks 1997). The other five films under analysis belong to the British directors: (1) John Boulting (1913 [Bray, Berkshire, England, UK] – 1985 [Sunningdale, Berkshire, England, UK]) – Brighton Rock (1947); (2) Mike Hodges (b. 1932 [Bristol, England, UK]) – Get Carter (1971); (3) John Mackenzie (b. 1932 [UK]) – The Long Good Friday (1980); (4) Jonathan Glazer (b. 1965 [London, England, UK]) – Sexy Beast (2000); (5) Paul McGuigan (b. 1963 [Bellshill, Scotland, UK]) – Gangster No. 1 (2000). It would be more correct to identify the reasons for the crime film being a success outside the boundaries of national mentalities. Leitch (2002) based his definition of the crime film within the conceptual context of culture rather than the national background. He (Leitch 2002, p. 14) argued that, [†¦] a crime culture [ ] depends on normalizing the unspeakable, a place where crime is both shockingly disruptive and completely normal. Crime may have different metaphorical valences in different criminal subgenres – it can demonstrate the fragility of the social contract in thrillers about innocent men on the run, attack the economic principles of the establishment in gangster films, express philosophical despair in films noirs, test masculine professionalism in private-eye films – but it is always metaphorical. Every crime in every crime film represents a larger critique of the social or institutional order – either the films critique or some characters. Finally, crime films dramatize not only the distinctive roles of criminal, victim, and avenger but also their interdependence and their interpenetration. Evidently, critics and spectators are lured to the genre by its flexibility and visualization of the concepts otherwise unseen or too repulsive to deal with in ordinary life. It is hypothesised that national mentalities affect the themes of crime movies but generic methods of the crime film depend rather on directors’ individual backgraounds rather than on their nationality.

How does Dickens Present the Criminals in Oliver Twist Essay -- GCSE En

â€Å"Oliver Twist† was written in 1838 by Charles Dickens and was originally published as a monthly magazine before being published as a novel that was subsequently read by many Victorians. It was written not only to entertain, but to raise awareness for the many issues in the society of the day related mainly to criminal activity. One of the main problems was based around the differentiation in the class of people in the Victorian era. People from the middle classes were widely known think very little of the lower classes and often considered them the evil of society. He also uses the novel to raise the issues related to the Poor Law Amendment Act of 1834 and the way that it involved sending poor or orphaned people like Oliver to ghastly overpopulated workhouses where they were poorly looked after. Dickens also fights against the negative stereotypes of criminals and prostitutes such as Nancy who eventually shows the good in herself to protect Oliver from the hands of the d eadly wrath of Bill Sikes. Although most would say Dickens is presenting the criminals as purely evil throughout the novel, characters such as Fagin and Sikes who are presented as dark creates of the criminal underworld, they do however on the very odd occasion redeem themselves with an act of good will, usually towards the boys. Fagin and Sikes, but more so Sikes are very dangerous and violent men, however Fagin is shown, along with Nancy, to have a good side within him and are given good images at parts of the novel, however Nancy’s good will proves to be her last move as her good will causes her to be brutally murdered by Sikes. This novel was written in the Victorian Era, a time when society faces many social difficulties such as industrialization, prostitu... ...edibly realistic and are well shown by the criminal’s actions and personalities in this novel. It makes me feel sympathetic for Nancy and feel strong hatred towards people like Bill and Fagin. Nancy gave up her life to protect and save the life of another human being. I find just doing that for somebody is a fantastic gesture and also takes a lot of courage. It definitely shows that individualism is bad for Britain, if Nancy followed individualism then it may have been the completely innocent Oliver that was killed or abused. He also shows that the people of Britain who are born into lower class families are not pure evil and that they definitely have much good within them. BIBLIOGRAPHY (1) http://www.scena.org/columns/lebrecht/050929-NL-twist.html Accessed 24/2/09 (2) https://www.123helpme.com/view.asp?id=37427 Accessed 5/3/09

Achievement goal theory: ‘An athlete’s motivation should always be to aim to be the best’ Essay

â€Å"Success and failure are not concrete events. They are psychological states consequent on the perception of reaching or not reaching goals† (Maehr & Nicholls, 1980. p. 228). The quality of an athlete’s sporting experience is shaped by the way in which success is defined, and by how capabilities are judged (Duda, 1993). Achievement Goal Theory (AGT) (Nicholls, 1984; 1989) outlines that people are motivated by the desire to fell competent. People can define competence and success in different ways, the main ones being ego and task orientations. Research is consistent in showing the motivational benefits of a task-orientation, either singly or in combination with an ego-orientation. In order to keep athletes involved in sport, success must mean being the best as well as task mastery and personal improvement (Duda, 1993). Drawing from past research, I will construct an essay to support the statement: ‘An athlete’s motivation should always be to aim to be the best’. I will firstly outline important tenants of AGT, in particular ego and task orientations, approach and avoidance goals, motivational climates, and TARGET guidelines. Secondly, I will use this information to provide a brief analysis of the motivational style that a coach of the Varsity rugby league team; Brent, performs, and the effects this style has on a particular 18-year-old athlete; Justin. Finally, I will describe specific theoretically based strategies that can be used by Brent, to adapt a more correct motivational atmosphere for Justin and his team. Coaches play an important role in determining the types of motivational orientations athletes perceive (Ames, 1992). Part 1: Theoretical Understanding. According to AGT (Nicholls, 1984, 1989), in achievement situations the goal of participants is to demonstrate competence or avoid demonstrating incompetence. AGT recognises at least two approaches athletes may adopt to judge their ability within a sporting context. A focus on comparing oneself to others (ego-orientated) or a focus on one’s own effort and improvement (task-orientated) Athletes, who are ego-orientated, perceive ability as limiting the effects of effort on performance (Nicholls, 1989). Here athletes show their high capacity of ability often at the expense of effort. Nicholls (1989) states that ego-orientated individuals judge their ability  relative to others, and try to demonstrate superior ability or outperform others to be satisfied. Those who are highly task-orientated use cues such as levels of effort and task completion to assess their competence, in a self-reflective manner. Here the athlete is satisfied if they perform to a level that reflects how they have mastered a task or made personal improvements (Ames, 1992). Much research points to the advantage of being task-involved when participating in sport and other achievement-related activities (Ames, 1992; Duda, 1993, 2001). Positive outcomes include health, well-being, and social and performance-related factors. When athletes report being task-oriented, they persist longer at sporting tasks, they are more engaged with their trainings, and they use more effective cognitive processing strategies (tennis). In comparison, ego-oriented goals may lead to negative outcomes, such as the tendency to drop out of sport (Duda & Balaguer, 2007). Adaptive cognitive, affective, and behavioral patterns are characteristics of task-orientated athletes as well as for those who are ego-oriented but who have high perceived competence or ability. Maladaptive patters are predicted for ego-oriented individuals who have low perceived ability (Nicholls, 1989). Athletes become predisposed to task and ego orientations because of social factors in their sport (i.e. the coach), and these orientations will subsequently influence what goal preference an athlete will adopt in a specific situation (Duda & Balaguer, 2007). Elliot (1999) & Pintrich (2000) state that task and ego goals are each divided into approach and avoidance goals. In terms of task goals, task-approach oriented athletes are interested in achieving mastery of a task; in contrast, task-avoidance oriented athletes are interested in avoiding misunderstanding the task. In terms of ego goals, ego-approach oriented athletes are interested in demonstrating that they are more competent than other athletes (i.e., have more ability than others); in contrast, performance-avoidance oriented students are interested in avoiding appearing incompetent or stupid. It is important to note that athletes can hold multiple goals simultaneously; thus, it is possible for an athlete to be both task-approach oriented and ego-approach oriented; here, this athlete  truly wants to learn and master the material but is also concerned with appearing more competent than others. The nature of the goal state (levels of task and ego-orientation) that is activated in a specific sport situation will be determined by individual preference (goal orientation) as well as situational cues (motivational climate). According to Roberts (2001) conceptions of competence are determined by both dispositional and situational factors. Research acknowledges that both students’ individual characteristics and contextual influences affect the types of goals that students adopt in various learning environments. Studies indicate that the environments in which athletes learn influence their goal orientations in important ways (Dweck, 1986; Cury, Biddle, Famose, Goudas, & Sarrazin, 1996; Spray, 2000). Whether an athlete is more task- or ego-orientated in sport depends partly on the motivational climate created by coaches. This can also be of two types: a mastery or task-oriented motivational climate, and a competitive or ego-oriented motivational climate (Ames, 1992). In this regard, athletes who have stronger ego-goal orientations are more likely to perceive an ego-oriented sport climate, whereas those with a dominant task-orientation are more likely to perceive a task-oriented motivational climate. The instructional practices that are used in trainings have an impact on the types of goal orientations that athletes adopt (Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999) In a task-oriented motivational climate, the coach emphasises cooperation, rewards players’ effort, and ensures that everyone feels that they have clear and important roles to play on the team. When mistakes are made, the coach responds with information on how to correct the error. Here, coaches are more likely to produce athletes who are confident, coachable, willing to work hard for commonly agreed upon goals, and who enjoy their sport. In an Ego-orietated motivational climate, the coach emphasises rivalry between players, has a low tolerance for mistakes, and has favourites amongst the players. This environment has been related to athletes having greater performance anxiety and self-doubt and other behaviors which are counterproductive (Duda, & Balaguer, 2007; Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999). In a task-orientated climate athletes experience greater enjoyment and  self-esteem, and reported less anxiety than in ego-involving climates. Athletes also report greater intrinsic motivation to play their sport when their coaches promote task involvement (Duda, & Balaguer, 2007; Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999). Another critical area that defines the predominant motivational climate is the type of feedback given to athletes. The task-orientated climate will have responses that emphasize effort, improvement and skill mastery. The ego-involving climate will focus on the win-loss record and the athlete’s ability. In a given context, if a coach talks about and truly focuses on mastery, improvement, and self-comparisons, then athletes are likely to adopt mastery goals, and to perceive a task goal structure during training. In contrast, if a coach constantly talks about skill levels, game scores, and who is doing the best (or the worst), then athletes are likely to adopt performance goals, and perceive a performance goal structure at training. An athlete’s motivation should be to strive to be the best, but it is the perception of what is meant by ‘being the best’ that the athlete must be concerned with. Coaches can play an important role in determining what athletes perceive as being the best It is therefore important to provide the right types of goals, in the right type of motivation climate. Epstein (1989) identified that the task, authority, recognition, grouping, evaluation, and time (TARGET) structures as influential factors that can determine the motivation climate. Epstein (1989) developed a taxonomy as a way of summarising and providing order to the various dimensions. Later, Ames (1992) adopted the TARGET acronym to summarise the structures that foster a mastery motivational climate in achievement situations, and consequently, display positive patterns of behaviours in athletes. The Task (T) dimension outlines the design of the learning activities. The Authority (A) dimension refers to the type and frequency of participation in the decision-making process. The dimension of Recognition (R) concerns the use of rewards to recognise progress and achievement. The Grouping (G) dimension regards the way in which athletes are divided into groups. The  Evaluation (E) dimension involves the methods, standards, and criteria used to assess learning. The Time (T) dimension concerns the appropriateness of the time demands, the pace of instruction, and the time designated to complete tasks. This model can be used to identify and design a learning environment to help develop athletes perceived competence, enjoyment and intentions to participate. Conversely, Ego-orientated climates are created when athletes are not given varied tasks, the coach maintains authority, athletes are recoginised for their ability relative to others, homogeneous ability groups are used, evaluation is based on normative practices, and time for task’s completion is inflexible (Duda & Balaguer, 2007). The mastery TARGET structures of task, grouping, and time have shown to have the greatest positive effect on peoples activity levels (Bowler, 2009). I will now use the discussed theoretical assumptions to provide a brief analysis of the motivational style that a coach Brent employs, and the effects this style has on an athlete; Justin. Part 2: Case Study; a Brief Analysis. Justin, an athlete in Brent’s team, is not enjoying league as much as he has in the past. Justin believes it is the coaching style and team environment, which has caused this change in motivation. Brent, a rookie coach, feels that his experience he has had as a player and from having been coached himself by a number of different coaches, will lead him to be a successful coach. It is evident from the case study and from the literature that Brent’s motivational style is negatively affecting Justin’s motivation, to the point that he seems certain to drop out of the sport completely. It would advantage Brent to be more task-orientated during his coaching; he currently employs an ego-orientated motivational style. His ego-orientated motivational climate can be categorised into the six dimensions of the TARGET taxonomy (Epstein, 1989). As a dimension of (T) Task: Brent does not emphasise individual challenge or active involvement during his fitness training and he dominates conversations by explaining what he thought went wrong. As a dimension of (A) Authority: Brent does not ask for input from the team regarding training drills and he does not give the players much of a chance to give their opinions. As a dimension of (R) Recognition: Athletes are recognised for their ability relative to others during fitness sessions rather than on effort as a perceived indicator of achievement. As a dimension of Grouping (G): homogeneous groups are evident when comparing new and existing team members; there is a sense of an ‘us and them’ atmosphere. As a dimension of Evaluation (E): the coach bases evaluation on fitness levels rather than effort, with no tools to develop the progression towards individual goals. and finally as a dimension of Time (T): the time the team has for task completion is inflexible, he expects quick progression of skills and fitness, as well as this, his sessions are all planned out in advance not allowing appropriate time demands. These ego-orientated practices that Brent employs, has created a motivational climate that is of a highly ego-orientated nature. This will influence the types of goal orientations that Justin adopts. The nature of the goal state will be determined by individual preference as well as the motivational climate. Justin’s motivational preference seems also to be highly ego-orientated. There is a high chance that this is a function of Brent’s ego-orientated instructional practices (motivational climate). Justin believes that in order to be successful he has to focus comparing himself with others either during fitness training or in higher recognition situations (i.e. aiming to make national representative squads). Justin displays performance anxiety and self-doubt. He does not feel like he has been given the opportunity to improve his league skills, and is worried about losing his place on the NZ rep team. Rather than striving for task-orientated goals, he is displaying an ego-goal orientation. Another effect of having an ego-goal orientation in sport is that Justin may perceive his ability by limiting the effects of effort during trainings. This lack of effort may be the reason for his lack of game time. Justin also displays an ego-avoidance orientation; here Justin is interested in avoiding appearing incompetent. He feels the only reason he is still playing is that he would feel guilty if he did not see the season through to the end. It is still early on in the season and although things do not seem to be going well for Justin, there is still hope yet. I will know describe specific strategies that i would encourage Brent to use to structure a more  adaptive ‘motivational’ sport environment for Justin Part 2: Case Study; Strategies for a more adaptive ‘motivational’ sport environment. I believe Brent needs to reflect of the current coaching style and make changes to certain aspects, and if possible up-skill (i.e. a coaching course). In order to structure a more adaptive ‘motivational’ sport environment for Justin and his team I would encourage Brent to design strategies to enhance task-involvement. Brent could employ the TARGET (Epstein, 1989) conceptualization, which represents the six structures of the achievement context to influence his athlete’s motivation. These situational structures are assumed to be interdependent; one dimension can have direct implications on another dimension within the structure. I will now explain how Brent can structure a more adaptive motivational climate using the principals of the TARGET guidelines. As a dimension of task, Brent could provide the athletes with tools to help set self-referenced process and performance goals. For example, Brent may want to record the athletes initial and post fitness tests scores (i.e. Time it takes to run 3km) to provide athletes with individual times. Here the demand of the task is to emphasise individual challenge. This also recognises that individual ability can be a perceived indicator of achievement. As a dimension of authority, Brent could encourage input from his team by directing questions to athletes during review sessions (e.g. â€Å"how do you think we could improve on our performance from Saturday’s game†) or getting individual athletes to call out the tackle count for a set of six tackles during defensive drills. This would be a great opportunity to nominate athletes like Justin, because it provides active involvement, while also building confidence and leadership skills. As a dimension of recognition, Brent could approach each player during the training session to talk through individual strategies, progress, and evaluation. This gives individual feedback that can advantage athletes like Justin. As a dimension of grouping, Brent could use differing grouping arrangements. For example arranging groups by which state of origin team they support, what province they are from, or which position they play (i.e. a forward). By sub-dividing groups under similar characteristics can support cooperative grouping  arrangements. As a dimension of evaluation, Brent could encourage athletes to bring a notebook to training as a way of recording their own personal improvements. Brent should also acknowledge mastery of tasks and congratulate good effort rather than comparing athletes’ skill levels against each other. As a dimension of timing, Brent needs to recognise that athlete’s progress through skills and fitness at different levels, a good coach must cater for all athletes by providing optimal timing constraints. This may involve being open to training drills progressing longer or shorter than what he had planned for. By employing Epstein (1989) conceptualization of the TARGET guidelines to foster a task-involving motivational climate, athletes will experience greater confidence, enjoyment and self-esteem. Athletes will also be more intrinsically motivation to play league. An athlete’s motivation should always be to aim to be the best. It important that Brent can change his own perception of what he defines as the best from his current ego-involved definition to a more task-orientated definition. Creating this type of climate will hopefully help develop his own athletes’ perceptions of competence and enhance their sporting experience. In conclusion, this essay has outlined some specific theoretical assumptions of the achievement goal theory, and how these can be used to understand athletes’ behavioral patterns in sport. The coach-created motivational climate can play an important role in influencing athletes’ interpretation of their involvement in sport. Whether this influence is more positive or negative appears to depend on the degree to which the motivational atmosphere the coach establishes is more or less task-involving and ego-involving. I was able to assess Brent’s current motivational style using the TARGET taxonomy and its effects this style has on a athlete; Justin. Finally, I was also able to point out specific strategies of the TARGET taxonomy to help Brent create a more task-orientated motivational coaching climate. In doing so I have been able to support the statement that ‘an athlete’s motivation should always be to aim to be the best’, by acknowledging that ‘best’ can be defined from task-orientated goals. References Ames, C. (1992). Achievement goals and the classroom motivational climate. In J. L. Meece & D. H. Schunck (Eds.). Student perceptions in the classroom (pp. 327-348). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Bowler, M. 2009. 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